Vikings

Vikings were Scandinavian sea warriors of the 8th to 11th centuries, sometimes called Norse, who raided Europe in their narrow, shallow draught, highly manoeuvrable longships, penetrating far inland along rivers. With a thirst for warfare, gold, and land, they were dreaded.

Vikings 841 at Dublin.

ETYMOLOGY 

'Viking' means ‘a pirate raid' in the Old Norse language. The name probably came from the Norse word vik, meaning "bay" or "creek," or from the Vik area, the body of water now called Skagerrak, which sits between Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. Their name first referred only to the raiders and was later applied to Scandinavians from the late eighth century

EXPANSION 

Viking military tactics succeeded mainly because they disregarded the conventional battlefield tactics, methods, and customs of the time. They ignored unspoken rules, like not attacking holy sites. To the contrary Vikings intentionally targeted religious sites for their vulnerability and wealth.

The Vikings first developed the fast and narrow longships with which they raided across the North Sea in the mid seventh century.

Viking Longboat 'Hugin', Ramsgate 

On June 8 793 Scandinavian Vikings destroyed the abbey at Lindisfarne, Northumbria, England, to begin the Viking Age. The devastation of Northumbria's Holy Island shocked and alerted the royal courts of Europe to the Viking presence.

In England, where they were also known as Danes, the English kings paid them to leave the country These payments were called Danegeld.  However, the Vikings settled and greatly influenced the development of the English language.

During the early 10th century, the incursions of Vikings evolved into more permanent encampments in north France. The Duchy of Normandy was established there in 911.

On September 25, 1066 during The Battle of Stamford Bridge, The English repelled Harald Hardrada's army. It was the last significant Scandinavian Viking invasion of Britain.

Battle of Stamford Bridge by Peter Nicolai Arbo.

As Normans they achieved a second conquest of England just a few weeks later when William the Duke of Normandy triumphed at the Battle of Hastings on October 14, 1066.

The Vikings had an organised system of government, and the Swedish Varangians were invited to settle differences among the Slav chieftains, establishing the first Russian state with its capital at Kiev.

The Varangians also reached Constantinople, where they formed the Imperial Guard. In the west the Vikings reached Iceland, Greenland and North America.

Erik the Red  (Old Norse: Eiríkr Þorvaldsson; 950 – c. 1003), was a Viking who was exiled from Norway for murder so he moved to Iceland but again was exiled for murder. So he took 500 men and women, founded Greenland, and declared himself chieftain.

Summer in the Greenland coast circa the year 1000 by Carl Rasmussen

BELIEFS 

In Norse mythology Valhalla is a giant hall, where the souls of warriors slain in battle are taken by the Valkyries. A form of heaven where they are ruled over by the god Odin, the fallen combatants spend their days fighting safe in the knowledge of never being permanently harmed.

In the 8th century, Danish king Harald Wartooth, realizing he might die of old age and therefore not go to Valhalla, asked the Swedish king Sigurd for a battle. Wartooth was slain after amassing enough glory, and Sigurd was crowned king of Sweden and Denmark. 40,000 other warriors died.

The Vikings believed that a giant goat named Heiðrún, whose udders provided an endless supply of beer, awaited them in Valhalla upon their death.

FOOD AND DRINK

The Vikings had a varied diet. The first meal of the day, called "dagveror", was a porridge consisting of a mixture of barley and rye cereals. With it the wealthy might have rye or wheat bread which was considered superior to barley as it rose better. However barley was cheaper and barley bread was still the chief bread of the poor.

The second meal, "nattveror", eaten at the end of the day, often was fish such as cod or herring, which was either eaten fresh or preserved by salting or drying in the wind.

Seaweed, vegetables and fruit accompanied the "nattveror". Most of the vegetables and fruit were home-grown and products such as cabbage, horse beans, onions, parsnips, peas and swedes and apples, berries, cherries and pears were found in their gardens.

The poor apart from occasionally in soups or stews rarely ate meat, though eggs, cheese and fat for everyday food preparation were obtained from the livestock. Sometimes puffins and gulls nests were raided for their eggs.

The rich would dine on beef, deer, duck, goose, ham and pigeon. Most families had a table of some sort, and wealthy families used a linen tablecloth.

Vikings were very fond of alcoholic drinks and most of their populace drunk beer made from barley and hops, or mead made from fermented honey.

Drinks were served in large horn-shaped cups made of glass or else in the hollowed-out horns of sheep and oxen.

Viking drinking horn

Drinking was part of social life, and it also was part of some religious ceremonies.

At their banquets they often toasted each other from the skulls of their slain enemies. Drunkenness was common and it was a frequent occurrence for a Viking man to die from the effects of too much drink.

The nobles consumed wine, which was imported from France and Germany, as their Scandinavian climate was too cold for grapes to grow.

When not drinking alcoholic drinks several dairy products, such as "skyr", a sort of curdled milk, were part of their diet.

CLOTHING

Viking mens' clothing might be tunics, braes and hose (instead of trousers) and some kind of hat.

Their tunic was usually sleeveless, perhaps to show off his muscles and gold arm rings.

Women typically wore a gathered and pleated underdress, a hangaroc (rather like a pinafore) and a headscarf.

Viking, Norway, Medieval, Sewing

Young women wore their hair long and caught around the forehead with a band, sometimes made of pure gold.

Both genders might wear cloaks and hoods in cold weather.

All wealthy Norsemen dressed lavishly for events like weddings and funerals and for things, as the assemblies were called. Skins and furs of tame and wild animals were used, but the most common material was a woven woolen cloth, called vadmal.

Silk and linen, which were imported and costly, were used mostly for underwear.

HYGIENE AND APPEARANCE 

The stereotype of the grimy, unkempt Viking is far from accurate. While their image in popular culture might paint them as rough and rugged raiders, historical evidence suggests they actually placed a surprising emphasis on personal hygiene and appearance. 

Contrary to popular belief, Vikings weren't strangers to bathing. Archaeological excavations have unearthed tweezers, ear cleaners, and even soap residue, indicating regular grooming routines. Written accounts from outside Scandinavia also mention their frequent bathing habits, with some even describing them as "excessively clean" compared to other Europeans of the time.

Their hygiene practices weren't limited to just bathing. They used combs for their hair, likely applied natural dyes or bleaches, and even sported elaborate hairstyles. Archaeological finds also reveal the use of razors for facial hair, suggesting a focus on maintaining a well-groomed appearance.

FUN VIKING FACTS

Viking girls got married as young as 12 and had to mind the household while their husbands sailed off on adventures. However, they did have more freedom than other women of their era. The women could inherit property, request a divorce and reclaim their dowries if their marriages ended.

Viking people held a yearly assembly, open to all citizens, where the people would discuss disputes and political decisions, preceded by a lawspeaker who memorised the entire law code and has the power to demote and elect kings.

Musical instruments such as drums, whistles and small harps have been found on Viking sites.

Viking blacksmiths would often add bones from ancestors or animals like bears to their iron ore to add carbon content, and to imbue the weapon with mystical properties.

Old Norse was the language of the Vikings and many words can be found in English including krill, sky, fjord, and ski. Another is "Thursday" literally “Thor's Day”, named after the Norse god of Thunder. This word dates back to the 12th century

We got the words 'anger', 'happy'', 'window', 'husband', 'ugly', 'steak', and many more from the Vikings.

The Vikings engaged in rap battles, trading poetic insults until a winner was chosen by the crowd.

Many Vikings had no special combat training—they were just farmers, fishermen, and peasants looking to make some extra money.

Some 9th century Scottish nuns literally cut off their noses and upper lips in order to make themselves too grotesque for invading Viking pirates to plunder them.

Sources Europress Encyclopaedia, Compton's Encyclopaedia, Christianity Today, Food For Thought by Ed Pearce

Roman Empire

The Roman civilization technically lasted for 2,200 years. It was founded as a monarchy in 753 BC, becoming  became a self-ruling republic (and free of Etruscan rule) in 509 BC, turned into an empire in 27 BC, shifted capital to Constantinople in 330 AD, and finally fell only in 1453 AD.

Between AD 208 and AD 211 the entire Roman Empire was governed from York in northern England. That is because the Roman world was governed from wherever the emperor was located and, during this period, Emperor Septimius Severus came to Eboracum (Roman York) with the intention of conquering Caledonia (modern Scotland). His campaign was cut short when he fell ill and died, aged 65.

Legionaries in the Roman Empire enjoyed considerable disposable income, enhanced by cash bonuses on special occasions such as the accession of a new Emperor. On completion of their term of service (25 years) they were given farmland and a discharge bonus equal to 13 years salary.

In Ancient Rome, the working class would evacuate entire cities in acts of revolt called "Secessions of the Plebeians." After leaving the elite to fend for themselves, commercial transactions would stop, and workshops would have to close.

At the height of the Roman Empire, the population was estimated to be between 70-100 million people.

 Roman Empire at its greatest extent at the time of Trajan's death  By Tataryn 

The Roman Empire was only the 28th largest in history—the British Empire was the largest, followed by the Mongol Empire.

Ancient China knew about the Roman Empire. They called them "Daqin" and documented several things concerning them, including a guide on how to reach them from China.

Ancient Rome lasted so long that the original meaning of a shrine built in Rome's city center had already been forgotten by later generations of Romans.

The administrative divisions of the Roman Empire in 395, under Theodosius I.

When Emperor Theodosius I died in Milan on January 17 395, the Roman Empire was re-divided into an eastern and a western half. The Eastern Roman Empire was centered in Constantinople under Arcadius, son of Theodosius, and the Western Roman Empire in Mediolanum (the ancient Milan) under Honorius, his 10-year-old brother.

When Germanic leader Odoacer captured Ravenna and deposed Emperor Romulus Augustus on September 4, 476, it marked the fall of the Western Roman Empire. The Western Roman Empire had been in a state of decline for many years due to various factors, including economic troubles, political instability, military defeats, and pressure from external barbarian groups. After removing Romulus Augustulus from power, Odoacer declared himself ruler of Italy. 

Though Odoacer's rule marked the end of the line of Western Roman emperors, the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire) continued to exist for several more centuries.

Romulus Augustus, has a significant name because, the founder of Rome was called Romulus and the First Emperor of Rome was named Augustus. The circular nature of his death brings a lovely end to the story of Rome.

Ancient Roman

The average life expectancy for a Roman was 25 years.

In the Roman empire as a whole, men vastly outnumbered women. There were an estimated 131 men for every 100 women in Rome. The disparity was even greater elsewhere and greater still among the elite.

FASHION

Roman hairstyles were determined according to class, age, and marital status. Aristocrats indulged themselves in public baths and lengthy rituals of adornment.

 Roman Baths Source johnwhye

Roman diners ate reclining and crowned with flowers. Before eating they changed their clothes putting on a woollen tunic provided for this purpose.

BUILDINGS

The Romans used many materials to build their dwellings - clay bricks, glass, granite, lava, marble, stucco, and wood.

The workers of Rome were crowded into apartment buildings made partly of wood. They were easily damaged by earthquakes and fires. These multi-story apartment blocks were called insulae.

Insula in Ostia Antica

Almost every house in Rome had a chamber called the atrium which was open to the sky.

Rainwater falling through the open roof was collected in a large tank below for household use.

The Romans developed a heating device called the hypocaust. Pipes carrying hot air from large ovens ran underneath the floors and warmed them.

A hypocaust-heated room with mosaics

A Roman villa was a country house built for the upper class, while a domus was a wealthy family's house in a town.

The Roman basilica was a large public building where business or legal matters could be transacted. They were normally where the magistrates held court, and used for other official ceremonies, having many of the functions of the modern town hall.

The Romans, in building their massive structures, used fired bricks, often decorated with colored glazes. Their pottery included a red earthenware known as Samian ware and a black pottery known as Etruscan ware.

The Romans probably pioneered the use of ceramic bathtubs, drain pipes, and similar useful articles.

MUSIC

Roman music was heavily influenced by Greek culture and used the same instrumentation and orchestration.

Instead of notes placed in higher or lower registers on staves to indicate pitch, the Romans used letters to indicate individual notes with a sign above each to tell the musician how long it should be held.

Most instruments, including the flute, the lute and the lyre were preceded by Greek or Egyptian versions, but in keeping with their reputation for innovation, the Romans also used organs, whose sound was produced by bellows, panpipes and the kithara, which was similar to the lyre.

An operatic style of singing co-existed alongside Roman choral music, and became well-known throughout the Mediterranean.

TRANSPORT

The Romans made great use of the horse, and vehicles carrying freight or passengers clattered over the streets of Rome.

Roman carriage (reconstruction)

By 45 BC, all vehicles had been banned from within Rome, and in other cities they were allowed only at night. Presumably the reason for this ban was because the vehicles endangered pedestrians and caused traffic jams.

Sources Daily Mail, Comptons Encyclopedia

Maya civilization

PRECLASSIC PERIOD

The Maya civilization was an ancient Mesoamerican civilization in an area that encompasses modern-day southeastern Mexico, all of Guatemala and Belize, and the western portions of Honduras and El Salvador.

The Maya area within Mesoamerica. By Kmusser - Foster, Lynn (2002). Handbook to Life in the Ancient Maya World. New York, US: Oxford University Press. Wikipedia Commons

The Mesoamerican Long Count calendar, used by several pre-Columbian Mesoamerican civilizations, notably the Mayans, begun in 3114 BC.

The earliest villages developed before 2000 BC, and the first Maya cities developed around 750 BC; by 500 BC, these cities possessed monumental architecture.

CLASSIC PERIOD

Beginning in the mid third century, the Classic period saw the Maya civilization develop a large number of city-states linked by a complex trade network. Cacao beans were used throughout Mesoamerica as currency.

Chichen Itza was one of the largest Maya cities and it was likely to have been one of the mythical great cities, or Tollans, referred to in later Mesoamerican literature. The archaeological site is located in Tinúm Municipality, Yucatán State, Mexico.

Chichen Itza By John Romkey from USA - Flickr, CC BY 2.0, Wikipedia Commons

The Maya developed highly sophisticated artforms, complex calendars, and mathematics that included one of the earliest instances of the explicit zero in the world.

Though Venus is an elusive planet - by turns it is the morning and the evening star - its path was calculated by the Mayas with an error of only fourteen seconds a year

Maya architecture included ceremonial ballcourts. The Mayans played a game with a ball of solid rubber. Two teams passed the ball to and fro between them, without using their hands. They had to strike it either with the knee, elbow, or hip, for which protectors were worn. The object was to get the ball through one of the rings. When accomplished, it marked the end of the game and the losing side's captain. was beheaded by the captain of the winning team.

The Mayans considered their ball game to be a serious and solemn fertility rite. The result of the game, they were convinced, determined the life of future generations and the continuation of the cycle of nature - whether there would be rain or drought.

The Great Ballcourt of Chichen Itza. By Jan Zatko - Wikipedia Commons

Human sacrifice among the Maya was performed in a number of ways, including decapitation, heart extraction, shooting with bow and arrows and disembowelment.

The Mayans believed that throwing women into water wells would please their rain god.

The Maya people were fond of liquid chocolate drinks with a foamy, frothy top. The consumption of chocolate was mainly restricted to the society's elite. The beverage was made by mixing ground maize (corn) and the roasted, crushed cocoa beans, which was grown on cocoa plantations by the Mayans with a little water. They then flavored it with fragrant herbs, honey and chili.

The liquid chocolate was used by the Maya people as a medicine. Its naturally occurring antioxidant compounds could help prevent heart disease and even cancer.

The jaguar was a key figure in Mayan mythology, and also lent its name to many rulers. The British Museum houses limestone carvings depicting Shield Jaguar, a Maya king who ruled in Yaxchilan from 681 until he died in the year 742 and his aunt and wife, Lady Xoc.

By 300 BC the Maya were using Hieroglyphic writing, the most advanced script in the pre-Columbian Americas. During their classic period, this literate civilization appears to have once had entire libraries of books.

Pages from the Postclassic period Paris Codex, one of the few surviving Maya books in existence

POSTCLASSIC PERIOD AND CONQUEST

The 9th century marked a significant period of political and social upheaval in the central Maya region, particularly in the southern lowlands, This led to the decline and eventual abandonment of many cities in this period.  Historians are not sure what actually happened. Some believe there was a big environmental disaster, or an epidemic, or even that there were just too many Mayans for the amount of food they could grow.

It is important to highlight that while there was a widespread collapse in the central Maya region during this time, not all cities were abandoned. Some cities in the northern Maya lowlands, such as Chichen Itza, continued to thrive for several more centuries.

In the 16th century, the Spanish Empire colonized the region;. The Christian conquerors of Central America determined to destroy all traces of the Maya civilization. Diego de Landa, the first Bishop of Yucatan, ordered all Maya books to be burnt and all Maya temples to be destroyed.

A March 8, 1576 letter written by Diego García de Palacio, a member of the Royal Audience of Guatemala, to King Philip II of Spain contained the first European mention of the Mayan ruins of Copán in modern Honduras.

The West Court of Copán

It took the Spanish 170 years to conquer the Maya lands as the Mayans had no capital city and each city had a different culture. The last Mayan states, the Itza city of Tayasal and the Ko'woj city of Zacpeten, which were both located deep in the jungle, still had people living in them late into the 17th century. They were finally conquered in 1697.

There are still about 6 million Maya people living in Central America.

The Spanish ordered all Mayan books and libraries to be destroyed for being, "lies of the devil."  The lone surviving written record of Mayan history is three codices written in hieroglyphs on bark paper.

Inca Empire

The Inca Empire was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America. It arose from the highlands of Peru sometime in the early 13th century. From 1438 to 1533, the Incas used conquest and non-violent assimilation to gain a large portion of western South America, that centered on the Andean mountain ranges. They ruled along the western coast of South America until the Spanish invasion in the 16th century.

The administrative, political, and military center of the empire was located in Cusco in modern-day Peru.

In the mid fifteenth century, Pachacuti, the King of the Incas and the ruler responsible for the Inca expansion into an empire, rebelled against the sun god his people worshiped. Having realized the sun follows a set path everyday, he asked himself, "So who is the true God?" He then learnt that his ancestors had worshiped the true God, Viracocha, the creator of all things. Armed with this partial revelation of Jehovah, Pachacuti ruled that only the ruling caste could worship this true god. Within a century when the Spanish conquistadors arrived instead of giving the Incas a full revelation of Jehovah, the Christian God, they obliterated the Inca royalty and ruling class. Thus all knowledge amongst the Incas of the one true God was destroyed and a possible South American reformation died at birth.

Conquistador Francisco Pizarro executed the last independent Inca Emperor Atahualpa in Cajamarca on July 26, 1533 during the Spanish conquest of the Empire.

The influence of potatoes permeated the Incan culture. For instance Incan units of time correlated to how long it takes for a potato to cook to various consistencies. Potatoes were even used to divine the truth and predict weather.

The Incas stored their potatoes and other food crops on the Andean mountain heights. The cold mountain temperature froze the food and the water inside slowly vaporised under the low air pressure of the high altitudes. This was the first instance of freeze drying food.

Chicha, a beer made from maize, played a major part in Inca life.

The Inca Empire had a very efficient messenger system thanks to its network of elite runners known as chasquis. Chasquis were trained from a young age to run long distances quickly, and they could deliver messages over 300 km (190 miles) in a single day.

The Inca road system was essential to the success of the messenger system. The roads were well-maintained and had relay stations at regular intervals, where chasquis could rest and exchange messages. The chasquis also had access to food and water at the relay stations.

The Inca messenger system was used to communicate with all parts of the empire, and it was also used to deliver goods, such as fresh fish from the coast to the Inca ruler in Cuzco, hundreds of miles away from the sea.

It is estimated that as many as 300,000 llamas were used by the Incas to transport silver ore from their mines.

In the marriage ceremony of the Incas, the couple was considered officially wed when they took off their sandals and handed them to each other.

Inca chiefs wore relatively short hair, with a headband wrapped around five times; nobles and commoners had progressively longer hair and fewer turns of the headband.

Before the Spanish conquest of South America, the Incas used gold for everyday objects such as nails, combs and dishes.

The Incas did not have a written language, instead they used colorful knotted cords called Quipu to record numbers and archives such as census data and storehouse records. They had up to a thousand unique strands.

The Inca Empire lacked the use of wheeled vehicles, lacked the knowledge of iron and steel, and above all, they lacked a system of writing, but were still able to construct one of the greatest imperial states in human history.

Incans did not have a form of currency. Goods were provided by the state.

Guinea pigs were first domesticated by the Incas, who used them for food, in sacrifices, and as household pets.

Cusco, the ancient capital of the Incan Empire, literally means belly button as the Incas thought their capital to be "the bellybutton of the world".

The last independent Inca Emperor, Atahualpa, was captured by the Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizarro in the Battle of Cajamarca in November 1532. The Spanish had a small force of about 168 men, but they were armed with guns and cannons, which gave them a significant advantage over the Incas. The Incas were also caught off guard by the Spanish attack, and they were not prepared for the use of guns and cannons.

After his capture, Atahualpa was held for ransom. The Spanish demanded a ransom of 13,420 kilograms of gold and 24,600 kilograms of silver. Atahualpa agreed to pay the ransom, and he ordered his subjects to bring the gold and silver to Cajamarca. The ransom was paid in full within a few months.

Despite paying the ransom, Atahualpa was still executed by the Spanish. The Spanish accused him of plotting to overthrow them, and they also claimed that he had murdered his half-brother, Huáscar. Atahualpa was strangled by garrote on July 26, 1533.

Machu Picchu, a 15th-century Inca citadel situated on a mountain ridge 2,430 metres (7,970 ft) above sea level was built around 1450, at the height of the Incas. It was abandoned just over 100 years later, in 1572, as a belated result of the Spanish Conquest.

The Macchu Picchu, at twilight. By Martin St-Amant Wikipedia

Although known locally, Machu Picchu was not known to the Spanish during the colonial period and remained unknown to the outside world.

American historian and explorer Hiram Bingham travelled the region looking for the old Inca capital and on July 24, 1911 he was shown to Machu Picchu by a local farmer Melchor Arteaga.

For more than five centuries, the Q'eswachaka people have been rebuilding the last Incan rope bridge every year.

Sources About.com, Food For Thought by Ed Pearce

Greece (Ancient)

The Ancient  civilization of Greece, thrived from the archaic period of the 8th/6th centuries BC to 146 BC. The period ended with the Roman conquest of Greece in the Battle of Corinth. Below is a map showing how the Greek civilization spread across the Mediterranean.

 

THE DIET OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS

Food and drink had a special importance for the ancient Greeks. Hospitality was a much valued virtue, when the head of the house was entertaining, female slaves ground the corn and prepared the food. The host then cooked the meal sometimes with the help of friends. Any visiting stranger was seated in the best place and it was customary to offer him, before the meal, a bath or foot wash.

Ancient Greek men liked to attend banquets called symposia, a continuation of dinner in which cheeses, fresh and dried fruit, salted cakes and yogurt in honey were served.

Breakfast for most ancient Greeks was a hot porridge made from cereal.

Lunch was bread baked in clay ovens from wheat or barley and goat cheese.

The main meal was at dinner, the poor would make do with fruit, vegetables and mushrooms gathered from the wild. The more wealthy had a two course meal, the first being vegetables with mutton, beef or pork.

Those who lived near the coast would eat fish such as squid and octopus, turbot and salted or marinated tuna. The meat or fish would either be fried in olive oil or roasted, a favorite recipe was dormice roasted in a vinegar and honey sauce.

This would be followed by items such as goat cheese, grapes, figs, honey cakes and almonds.

Food also had a religious significance and the Greeks often make food offerings at temples.

MEDICINE

Spices and herbs played an important role in Greek medical science and many every day products had alternative medical uses. For instance wine and vinegar was used in wound dressings and horseradish was used as a rub for low back pain and an aphrodisiac.

THE ARTS

The Greeks believed that mealtime offered an opportunity to nourish the spirit as well as the body. They reclined on couches while eating with poetry, lyre playing and dancing in the background.

From the very early times dancing has been popular among the Greek people. The ancients thought it promoted physical health and influenced one's education positively.

In Homer's epics, which date from the 11th to 10th century BC, dance is portrayed as a kind of social pastime, not as an activity associated with religious observances.

Generally, Greek dances were not based on the relationship between men and women. Most were performed by either one sex or the other.

In Greek plays dance was of major importance, and the three greatest dramatists of the era--Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides--were familiar with dance in both theory and practice.

In plays such as The Bacchae,  Euripedes' last great work, a dancing choir plays a role of major importance.

Choruses played an integral part in the ancient Greek dramas, sometimes singing as well as speaking.

The Chorus normally sang in unison (though its leader could take part in spoken dialogue with actors), and danced in formation as it sang.

The ancient Greeks selected and arranged the tones in scales called modes. Two of these Greek modes supplied the foundation for the music of the Western world.

The Greeks used stringed instruments such as the lyre, flutes such as the panpipe, and a wide variety of percussion instruments, including tambourines, cymbals, and castanets.

At Greek dramatic festivals the music to accompany songs was provided by the only unmasked figure, the player of the aulos, which was a double pipe with reeds.

Choruses played an integral part in the ancient Greek dramas, sometimes singing as well as speaking.

The Chorus normally sang in unison (though its leader could take part in spoken dialogue with actors), and danced in formation as it sang.

Poet-musicians competed at religious festivals. The amateur players accompanied their poems on the lyre, and virtuosos used the cithara, a similar instrument with more strings.

HOMES

In ancient Greece, houses were built of stone, wood, and clay bricks. The better homes had an open court called a peristylum.

The Athenians lived in very modest houses. They used their building skills to create majestic public structures such as temples, baths, and the agora, or marketplace, in which they spent most of their time.

ANIMALS

The ancient Greeks viewed the horse as a heroic symbol, a wonder beast ridden by great warriors and by the gods.

The Greeks hunted wild boar and mountain lion on horseback.

Sources Europress Encyclopedia,  Compton's Interactive Encyclopedia, Food For Thought by Ed Pearce

Ephesus

During New Testament times, the city of Ephesus in modern day Turkey was extraordinarily prosperous. Its tourist trade bought in so much revenue that included in the town was the world’s first bank.

It is believed by many that Mary, the mother of Jesus, was taken to a stone house, just outside of Ephesus by the Apostle John after the crucifixion of Jesus and she lived there for the remainder of her life.

A church in Ephesus was established by St Paul in 53AD and a year later on his third missionary journey he stayed for three years ministering with great effect. When a few years later he wrote to the Ephesian church during his imprisonment in Rome, he made no specific reference to any difficulties within the church so all appeared to be going well.

The Temple of Artemis, also known less precisely as the Temple of Diana, was a Greek temple dedicated to the goddess Artemis and was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. St Paul's preaching  in Ephesus caused locals to fear for the temple's dishonor and a silversmith named Demetrius, who made silver shrines of Artemis, It was destroyed by Germanic speaking Goths in 262 AD and never rebuilt.

In the Book of Revelation written at the end of the 1st century Jesus commended the Ephesian church for its hard work but warned them that they had lost their initial zeal. He admonished them to repent and return to the initial love for originally had for him, otherwise they would cease to be an effective church. Sadly this never happened and by the third century the Ephesian church had become very nominal.

In 262 the Goths sacked the City of Ephesus. Although rebuilt, the city never regained its former splendor. It was finally abandoned in the 6th century CE when the harbor completely filled in with river silt. 

Egypt (Ancient)

The Egyptians usually only had one main meal every day, at lunchtime, with light snacks for breakfast and supper.

Rich Egyptians never ate fish as they regarded them as evil creatures.

Everybody ate bread, for which the Egyptians had 15 different words, it was the most important part of most peoples diet.

Alcohol was very important in ancient Egypt. This is indicated by the fact that while most gods were only worshiped locally, Sesmu- the god of wine- was worshiped throughout the country.

The Egyptian term for "Pharaoh" means literally the "Great House." Originally, it designated part of the large palatial complex at Memphis, one of the early cạpitals of Egypt in the 3rd millennium BC. Soon thereafter, it denoted the Egyptian government itself. The king and his administration not just the buildings from which they gave governed.

The process by which the king of Egypt became known as "Pharaoh" was gradual, involving various stages. In the first stage, sometime before. Thutmose Ill became king (1479 BC), the title occasionally applied to Egypt's monarch. A more advanced stage occurred before the end of the New Kingdom period (1069 BC), when the use of "Pharaoh", referring to the king moved from everyday speech into the official language of the country. From the time of King Ghosheng 1 (or Sheshonk, 945-924 BC) "Pharaoh" was added to the king's official title.

Pharaohs lived in spectacular palaces (the word “pharaoh” means “great house”.)

Hatshepsut, the sixth pharaoh of the 18th dynasty, was one of the few—and by far the most successful—women to rule Egypt as pharaoh. During her remarkable reign  between c. 1479-1458 BC, she donned male clothing and wore a fake beard. Below is a large granite sphinx bearing the likeness of Hatshepsut, depicted with the traditional false beard, a symbol of her pharaonic power.

By Keith Schengili-Roberts - Wikipedia

The Greeks laughed at the Egyptians' strangely constructed tombs, calling them "wheaten cakes," which gave us the word "pyramid."

The cat was proclaimed to be sacred in ancient Egypt. Thousands of cats were mummified after their deaths to ensure them eternal life.

In Ancient Egyptian religion there were 42 commandments and 42 gods who ruled on the fate of the dead in the afterworld.

Ancient Egyptians would shave off their eyebrows in order to properly mourn the death of their cats.

In ancient Egypt, priests plucked every hair from their bodies, including their eyebrows and eyelashes as part of their ritual.

According to Greek historian Herodotus, Ancient Egyptian men never became bald. The reason for this was that, as children, Egyptian males had their heads shaved, and their scalps were continually exposed to the health-giving rays of the sun.

Green was a sacred color to the Egyptians representing the hope and joy of spring. The floors of Egyptian temples were green.

About 3,000 years ago, most Egyptians died by the time they were 30.

Reports of people receiving shocks from electric fish date back to ancient Egyptian texts of 2750BC.

Archery was a sport in ancient Egypt. The ancient Egyptians were famous for their skill with the bow.

The Ancient Egyptians trained baboons to wait at tables.

Along with the Mesopotamians, the Egyptians were the first people to develop their language into a codified form of writing. The Ancient Egyptians also invented the first paper-like material from the papyrus plant.

In Ancient Egypt, the tax system was linked to water levels of the River Nile. It was used to predict farmers' wealth each year.

Memphis, Egypt remained the largest city in the world from at least 3100 BC to 2240 BC when the Babylonian city of Akkad claimed the title.

Sources Europress Enyclopedia,  Compton's Interactive Encyclopedia, So That's Why Bible, Thomas Nelson Bibles

China (Ancient)

China was named after Qin Shi Huang, who became the first emperor of China in 221 BC and was a tyranny responsible for the first version of the Great Wall and Terracotta Army, as well as the deaths of thousands of scholars whom he buried alive to stop them preaching the works of Confucius.

Qin Shi Huang, the first emperor of China

Qin Shi Huang died on September 10, 210 BC while on a tour to Eastern China due to trying to eat too much mercury – which he thought was the key to immortality.

Afraid that news of his death would cause a revolt, his trusted advisers transported his body back to his palace among barrels of rotten fish, to mask the smell.

After the death of Qin Shi Huangdi, his second oldest son Qin Er Shi forged a letter in the emperor's name, stating that the eldest son is to commit suicide and the second oldest son would become emperor. That plan worked.

The coronation ceremony of Liu Bang as Emperor Gaozu of Han took place on February 28, 202 BC, initiating four centuries of the Han Dynasty's rule over China.

Emperor Gaozu of Han dynasty.

During the 400 years of the Han Dynasty of China, dogs were portrayed in many pieces of pottery. These were effigy pieces that symbolized the burial of favored dogs with their masters.

The Ancient Chinese dined on rich stews of meat and vegetables accompanied by fluffy grains of millet that they steamed over the stew. They had little use for the foreign cereal, wheat, which had been brought to China by travellers from the west. For them, it was the food for the miserably poor or as a last resort when stores are running low.

Toy dogs were also popular among the ancient Chinese: the little animals were used to provide warmth when carried in the wide sleeves of their gowns.

The Han dynasty was briefly interrupted on January 10, 9AD, when  the throne was usurped by Wang Mang, who founded the Xin dynasty. The Han dynasty was re-established on August 5, 25AD when Guangwu of Han claimed the title of emperor. The dynasty is thus separated into two periods—the Western Han (202 BC – 9 AD) and the Eastern Han (25–220 AD).

The Ancient Chinese were aware of the Roman Empire and even attempted to make contact around 97AD.

Sources Food For Thought by Ed Pearce, Compton's Interactive Encyclopedia © 1998 The Learning Company, Inc.

Celts

The Celts were Indo-European people that originated in Alpine Europe and spread to the Iberian peninsula and beyond.

The Celts' first known territory was in central Europe about 1200 BC, in the basin of the upper Danube, the Alps, and parts of France and southern Germany. In the 6th century BC they spread into Spain and Portugal. Over the next 300 years, they also spread into the British Isles, northern Italy, Greece, the Balkans, and parts of Asia Minor, although they never established a united empire.

Around 300BC, early Celtic language became Europe’s first lingua franca, making it the English of its day.

Celtic languages survive in Ireland, Wales, Scotland, the Isle of Man, and Brittany, and have been revived in Cornwall.

Bards were originally poets of the ancient Celts whose role it was to celebrate national events, especially heroic victories.

“Briton” comes from the Celtic word “Pretani”, a tribal name meaning “the painted ones” or “the tattooed people”

As the Saxon settlers swept across Britain, the Celts, perhaps inspired by the Druids, sang “The Battle Song of Bali Mawr” before a bloody encounter.

Encyclopedia of Trivia © RM 2014. Helicon Publishing is division of RM.

Byzantine Empire

The Byzantine Empire (395–1453) was the direct continuation of the Roman Empire in the East, and inherited many of its traditions and institutions.

When the Roman Empire was divided in the 4th century AD, Byzantium, later named Constantinople and known today as Istanbul, became the capital of the eastern part.

Christianity had an effect on Byzantine dress. In keeping with the puritanical teachings of the Orthodox Church, the men and women of Byzantium concealed their bodies entirely. Both sexes wore long, straight, sleeved tunics made of silk or linen and bound at the waist with a belt that was often heavily encrusted with jewels. The silk and gold threads that were used in Byzantine garments made them look very different from those of Greece and Rome.

The greatest of the public buildings in Constantinople was the Hippodrome, an arena that could seat over 40,000 people. Byzantines gathered there to sit under silk awnings and watch chariot races, jugglers, circus acts, and fights between wild animals

The earliest known record of a carousel device is a Byzantine etching from 500 AD which portrays riders swinging in baskets tied to a center pole.

Chariot racing was a popular sport in the Byzantine Empire. In Constantinople the chariot drivers were divided between two teams, the blues and the greens. Their supporters clashed over not only sport but also political matters. In 532 a political demonstration and disturbances between Blues and Greens almost brought the overthrow of the Byzantine emperor Justinian.

Greek fire was first used in naval warfare in 674 AD, during the Arab siege of Constantinople. The Byzantines used Greek fire to set fire to the Arab ships, and the attack was repelled. 

Greek fire was a highly flammable liquid that could be projected from a siphon or flamethrower. It was a closely guarded secret of the Byzantines, and its exact composition is still unknown. However, it is believed to have been made from a mixture of petroleum, naphtha, sulfur, and quicklime.

Greek fire was a devastating weapon, and it played a major role in the Byzantine Empire's defense against its enemies. It was used to great effect in naval battles, and it was also used on land to set fire to buildings and fortifications.

The Byzantines kept the secret of Greek fire for centuries, but it was eventually lost. The last known use of Greek fire was in 1376 AD.

In 730 Emperor Leo III forbade the use of images in worship, except the cross, by Imperial decree. It was feared that the growing power of the Arabs, which was threatening the Byzantine empire, was due to the Byzantine sin of icon worship.

The Byzantine Empire decisively defeated an invading Arab army in the Battle of Lalakaon in Paphlagonia (modern northern Turkey) on September 3, 863. This meant that the main threats to the Byzantine borderlands were eliminated. The victory begun the era of Byzantine ascendancy, which would culminate in the great conquests of the 10th century.

The Battle of Lalakaon, as depicted in the Madrid Skylitzes

The Byzantine Empire maintained an increasingly precarious existence and on May 29, 1453 it was finally overthrown when the Ottoman Turks captured Constantinople. The conquest of Constantinople followed a siege that had begun 53 days earlier. The end of the Byzantine Empire marks, for some historians, the end of the Middle Ages.

The last siege of Constantinople, contemporary 15th century French miniature